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- Keynote Address presented at the Advanced Placement Institute,
co-sponsored by the College Board and the Center for Gifted Education,
College of William and Mary, August 7, 2000
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- Your role as a teacher of Advanced Placement (AP) is critical to promoting
the academic talent development process in gifted adolescents and other
students electing for such course work. AP represents coursework calibrated
to selective college curriculum and is assessed by teams of secondary
and university faculty. As such, it represents the best gauge we have
in American education of successful curricular collaboration across
K-12 and higher education. It also represents the hallmark program for
judging the quality of student learning at secondary level through the
use of recommended course syllabi and standardized exams.
- AP is also an important part of state education policy in 23 states,
providing support for training of teachers, test fees for students,
and support for school district participation. The program has gained
such favor among policy makers because of its proven effectiveness in
enhancing the quality of educational experiences for college-bound populations
over the past 40 years. More recently in the current reform climate,
it is seen as a model for implementing high standards at all levels
of the school curriculum.
- It has grown from offering a few courses to now providing 33; from
serving a few thousand students to serving over 700,000 per year; from
being offered in selected states to now being offered in all states
and internationally (College Board, 1999). The success of AP, however,
cannot be measured only in numbers. It also can be measured in the benefits
it has produced to gifted students over the years. Dr. Julian Stanley
once remarked that AP was the best friend gifted students will ever
have in their K-12 educational years. He may well be right, for it offers
an array of benefits not found in many other educational options.
- Thus its role in the talent development process is central as can
be seen from situating it as an example of differentiated curriculum.
Origins of differentiated curriculum for gifted learners have come from
our understanding of the characteristics and needs of students who have
the capacity for higher functioning in all areas of learning, as well
as those who exhibit some specific aptitude in related academic areas
such as the verbal arts and humanities or mathematics and science or
the arts. This framework for defining giftedness has 80 years of psychometric
research behind it and still today is used as the primary backdrop for
identification as well as programming although newer conceptions of
giftedness vie for attention. Advanced Placement course work is exemplary
of a tailored curriculum response that recognizes advanced cognitive
capacities such as abstract reasoning, higher level thinking, and rapid
learning rate in such students and provides a rich and complex set of
learning experiences. The program is comprehensive by specific subject
area, and although offered only at high school level, has promise for
earlier articulation of major skills and processes.
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Benefits of Advanced Placement for Academically Talented Learners
In the late 1970's gifted students reported AP to be the most beneficial
program taken during their high school years. This perception has not
changed appreciably over the intervening decades (Kolitch & Brody,
1992). One such benefit to these students is accelerated learning. Research
on the benefits of acceleration includes the following:
-improved motivation, scholarship and confidence of gifted and talented
students over time
-prevention of habits of mental laziness
-earlier access to and completion of more advanced opportunities
-reduction of the total cost of university education and time towards
a degree and professional preparation (Swiatek, 1993)
- Effect sizes for subject acceleration including AP course work, early
admission to college and credit by exam range from mild to moderate,
signaling not only a statistical difference favoring these approaches
but also one that is educationally important (Rogers, 1998). Advanced
coursework offered on a past-paced model also results in greater learning
for gifted learners in mathematics (Mills, Ablard, & Lynch, 1992),
and the sciences (Lynch, 1992), suggesting that accelerated learning
programs also need to be fast-paced to optimize student performance.
- A second benefit is the emphasis on higher order thinking skills.
Current research suggests that teaching critical thinking requires domain-specific
tactics and the development of a strong knowledge base in students (Sternberg
& Bhana, 1989). Moreover, it suggests that interactive inquiry also
enhances critical thinking. AP, through the rigor of its course structure,
provides a major emphasis on thinking critically. Much of the AP material
in most subjects is performance-based, requiring students to exhibit
analytical, interpretative, synthetic and evaluative skills to perform
the task demands at high levels.
- A third benefit of the AP program for bright students is the emphasis
on advanced concepts. Current learning research suggests that focusing
student learning on major ideas in a discipline can both help retention
and provide a mental schema on which students can build their understanding
as new applications to that schema are made (Nuttall & Alton-Lee,
1993; Schank, 1990). One example would be the concept of change where
students come to appreciate certain generalizations about it, such as
being related to time, being applicable to all areas of life, random
or planful, created by people or external forces. These students can
then begin to study change in specific subject areas like English where
it coheres well with literature study, writing, and language features.
Then it can be applied to literary elements such as character, plot,
theme, motivation, etc, to frame central aspects of the discipline for
students. Such an organization of AP material enhances and enriches
the learning for gifted students.
- Teaching the structure and tools of a discipline also affords gifted
students an important avenue for meaningful learning. Because AP is
content-rich, approach to coverage has to be well-focused on what really
matters in an area of learning which strips teaching of nonessential
material. Students acquire core knowledge used by professionals and
the tools to inquire about how knowledge is generated in a given field.
Such an approach fosters in gifted learners a deep level of understanding
about "how the world works" and provides a starting place
for creative original work. One Latin academy student in Virginia from
last year developed his own web page as a study guide to AP Latin for
other students after receiving a "5" on the exam. He is also
currently translating a Plautus play because he felt the need for a
new and up-to-date translation. Once provided with the tools of a professional,
many gifted students can use them to engage in highly creative and original
applications.
- The Advanced Placement program also sets high level expectations for
learners. Course expectations are clearly stated and require persistent
work over time to do well. Grading is guided by the rubric used for
the final test which keeps the focus sharp. It is my contention that
all gifted and talented students should take at least three AP courses
during high school so as to potentially qualify as AP scholars.
- Lastly, the Advanced Placement program provides powerful incentives
to able learners. The program allows for the possibility of receiving
college credits earned for high school course work as well as exempting
students from introductory college courses. Moreover, in individual
cases, flexible use of AP can spread out difficult course work across
the secondary years, such that students could take some AP course work
as early as freshman year and then take two courses each subsequent
year. The program is also available at Talent Search universities in
the summer to access through 75 hours of instruction over three weeks;
it is available on-line; and to do independently. All of these modes
of delivery encourage students to try for advanced standing at many
universities around the country. The AP Scholars designations are also
useful for students in presenting their resumes and portfolios, providing
evidence of real effort in several different subjects.
- Moreover, use of AP credit to accelerate does not neccessarily reflect
continued acceleration. Recent research at the College of William and
Mary suggests that students who amass large amounts of AP credit do
not graduate early in commensurate numbers, rather choosing to stay
and take other courses of interest (Fithian, 1999).
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What Matters in Talent Development
The relationship between intelligence and effort as they impact on performance
remains an open question. Does ability prevail regardless of effort?
Does effort compensate for lack of ability? Does effort create ability
over time? Or as those of us in gifted education might suggest, does
the interaction of high ability with persistent effort produce "best
performance"? Gagne's model of talent development (1985) is an
important conceptual backdrop to understanding the talent development
process as one where nascent abilities are catalyzed by intrapersonal
and environmental factors to produce highly developed talents in various
fields. Such a process requires several variables working together to
bring about high level performance in any field. One such variable,
as Gagne suggests, is ability itself, whether in a general intellectual
sense or in a specific area well-matched by educational opportunity.
Research on talent development has suggested that early aptitudes can
be discerned and addressed even in early childhood (Bloom, 1985). Moreover,
student interests and values also contribute to our understanding of
adolescent talent and how it develops, suggesting that adolescent identification
of these variables can be used to help steer students into fields most
consistent with their profiles (Achter, Benbow, & Lubinski, 1998).
- Ericsson & Linder's work (1997) on chess players and runners is
also instructive on the role of effort in talent development. He contends
that experience in an area coupled with expert instruction and large
amounts of deliberate practice accounts best for peak performance. Moreover,
he maintains that practice alone enhances performance and separates
masters from amateurs in the fields he has studied. Very instructive
in Ericsson's work is his insight on how to move individuals beyond
plateau levels of performance. He suggests imitation of achievement,
feedback from real life, preparation for specific events, and a retro-analysis
of past events and performances.
- Passion and commitment as interpersonal catalysts contribute to talent
development, where learning is beyond one's grasp but within reach if
zeal is applied to the enterprise. Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, &
Whalen (1993) found, for example, that gifted adolescents liked teachers
who were supportive but also passionate about their field - a good description
of Advanced Placement teachers.
- The role of quality instruction and master teaching is also central
to talent development as suggested by several studies (Bloom, 1985;
Ericsson & Linder, 1997; Wang & Walberg, 1991). Instruction
must be sensitive to a student's level of functioning, provide direct
teaching to raise that level, be accompanied by specific timely feedback
and reinforcement, tailored practice, and evidence of attainment. Such
an instructional regime appears to advance talent the most in all areas
of human endeavor. Teachers must be able to provide such quality instruction
and thus require subject-specific expertise and pedagogically relevant
expertise. The teacher then must be someone who knows a field well enough
to suggest ways for talented learners to reach new levels of attainment.
- Finally, models and mentors play an important role in the talent development
process. Research on the effects of mentorships for gifted students
have yielded moderate to high effect sizes across studies in the areas
of cognitive development, self-esteem, and social understanding (Rogers,
2000). Pleiss and Feldhusen (1995) found that mentors were critical
for aspiring scientists, while emulators or models, even from afar,
were helpful to aspiring artists. Teachers and librarians many times
provided important modeling for talented students. Robert Root Bernstein,
a MacArthur Fellow, credited his hometown librarian as very influential
in turning him on to science at the age of 10 through judicious selection
of books. He later won a Westinghouse scholarship.
- All of these factors affect how talented students will become in given
areas of life pursuit. As teachers of AP, you are in a unique position
to foster students' internal motivation to succeed as well as to provide
the personal and instructional support so vital to the process.
- How schools contribute to student achievement also has been studied
in respect to dimensions of school capacity (King & Newmann, 2000).
Three areas of interest emerge from that research: teacher knowledge,
skills and dispositions; professional community (schools as a collective
enterprise); and program coherence (clear learning goals sustained over
time). Clearly, the development of talent in school-based settings must
consider the importance of these contextual variables as well.
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Issues of Gifted Adolescents
While Advanced Placement programs have the potential to provide an optimal
match for gifted learners in respect to differentiated curriculum and
assessment protocols and key aspects of talent development, such programs
can fall short of being ideal for many gifted learners if there is not
a clear understanding of important gifted adolescent issues that call
for flexibility and attention to individual differences.
- One issue that Advanced Placement teachers need to be aware of is
the different levels of aptitude for a particular AP course. The range
of ability in AP classes is typically very great. Even if all students
were identified as gifted, the range would be as broad as in heterogeneous
classes. Such differences in aptitude level require more attention to
addressing individual needs. Because AP course work probes depth of
understanding, it tends to reveal greater disparity in student learning.
Level of aptitude may predict how much material students can handle
well, how capable they are to work independently, and how strong they
are conceptually with the material. Use of various forms of flexible
grouping for in-class work may be an antidote to this problem. Organizing
sections of AP by ability levels may also be useful in subjects where
enrollments are sufficiently high.
- Uneven development and performance is another problem of gifted
adolescents.
Many gifted students are stronger in oral work than in written work,
causing uneven classroom performance. Moreover, gifted students in adolescence
have strong preferences for subject matter and tend to devote more time
and energy to those they like; consequently, if they take AP in other
subjects, while qualified, they often do not perform at their intellectual
level. The depth of the work also tends to "reveal" this unevenness
in student profiles. Working with students on areas of relative weakness,
once these areas have been identified, constitutes one ameliorative
approach to this problem. Suggesting outside tutoring to shore up critical
weaknesses in areas like writing may be another approach.
- The culture of academic preparation for selective colleges suggests
the need to demonstrate well-roundedness which leads to the problem
of overscheduling and lack of sleep for many talented teens. Multiple
interests also are a culprit here. For instance, music, sports, and
drama are all highly time-consuming activities yet important for many
students because of broad interests. Stress can result more from an
overload of these co-curricular activities than from the academic challenge
of Advanced Placement per se. Counseling students to balance their time
and commitments in ways they can manage is an important service that
AP teachers can provide these adolescents.
- Unproductive study habits also frequently interfere with the optimal
performance of many students in Advanced Placement courses. Moreover,
students may not know how to study certain subjects, especially mathematics.
They need clear guidelines to assist them with this ( i.e., how long
assignments should take, what is appropriate to study, etc.) They also
many times are not used to sustained homework expectations that require
nightly preparation. AP forces students to come to terms with their
lack of discipline in independent learning situations and can be a perceived
problem. Constant support, encouragement, and specific ideas to assist
students will be appreciated.
- More difficult content such as students encounter in Advanced Placement
can reveal underlying learning difficulties such as learning disabilities
(LD0) and attention deficit disorder (ADD) in adolescents. Thus teachers
in Advanced Placement classes should be cognizant of this possibility
in students and be ready to provide appropriate accommodations. These
would include:
1) Frequent contact with parents via websites and e-mail to explain
current and upcoming assignments as parents need to monitor daily work
progress and be kept aware of medication effects.
2) Instructional accommodations such as tape recording of class lectures
for later review, more time on tests, more time on assignments, structuring
of tasks, and seating arrangements that allow such students to be up
front and center.
- These special issues and others of a social-emotional nature that
affect gifted adolescents can impact strongly on their ability to have
a successful experience in Advanced Placement courses. Recognizing the
presence of these issues and how to ameliorate their effects is also
a part of being a successful AP teacher.
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Issues in teaching Advanced Placement
While this week will provide you with many course-specific ideas and
strategies for teaching Advanced Placement courses, there are some core
approaches that apply across all AP subjects that have been successful
in working with gifted learners. These approaches include:
1) Preassessment and diagnostic followup - The use of old tests at the
beginning of the year, especially in subjects that are most clearly
sequential in learning such as English or history can be useful in ascertaining
the level of functioning of each student in the class so that more tailored
instruction might follow.
2) In-class power tasks - Use of timed performance-based tasks to stimulate
interest and check on readiness for novel task demands under power conditions
is an important instructional approach to employ. Immediate feedback
through oral discussion along with individual assessment of performance
heightens the opportunity for authentic learning to occur.
3) Specific feedback for improvement - Students need advice, counsel
and tutoring on how to move up and improve their assessment scores (i.e.,
from a 1-2 to a 3 or a 3 to a 4 or a 4 to a 5). Coaching may be required
in order to encourage such progress.
4) Targeted homework - The maxim that may apply here is "less is
more". The tendency of teachers, because of the need to cover extensive
material, may be to pile on homework to an extent beyond what students'
would typically receive in a college class. A better strategy is well-selected
homework within the reach of the students' ability to do it in a reasonable
amount of time. Hard problems and analyses should be done in class with
easier applications and analysis out of class.
5) Tutorial review and test practice - Providing review sessions six
weeks and onward before exams is a strong incentive to student high
performance. Old tests should be distributed and used liberally in preparation.
Research has consistently shown the highest effect sizes (2.00) for
tutorial approaches (Bloom, 1984).
6) Taking the AP exam - In general, students should be encouraged to
take the AP exam if they have taken the class and are passing it. The
exam itself constitutes a learning experience. Score results should
always be viewed in light of preassessment data, with a clear eye to
evidencing improvement.
- The employment of these generic approaches should lead to stronger
student performance on the AP exams but also to greater teacher satisfaction
in the instruction of the course work as the teaching-learning dynamic
becomes more palpable in the classroom.
- Persistent problems
Despite all of the successes and benefits cited in this paper, unresolved
problems pervade the implementation of Advanced Placement programs in
schools. One of these is coherence. Research on schools has suggested
the need for learning goals sustained over time. Thus AP is a necessary
but insufficient response to the call for higher levels of achievement.
There is a clear need to develop articulation and alignment of AP standards
at all levels of the curriculum. A second issue is that of grouping.
Current research suggests the need to engage in flexible grouping within
AP classes as well as to group multiple sections for maximum effect.
Grouping with differentiated curriculum produces six months to a year
value-added gains for gifted students (Kulik & Kulik, 1992). There
is also a concern for deep implementation of AP course syllabi by trained
teachers. Schools must ensure that instruction is producing real learning
as judged by student performance. Where this is not occurring, improvements
are clearly called for. Finally, we need to be concerned about access
to Advanced Placement. There is a need to ensure that all students who
could profit from AP are enrolled. Special outreach efforts to economically
disadvantaged and minority students is critical in ensuring appropriate
representation in such programs.
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Conclusion
While Advanced Placement coursework may not be for every college-bound
student, the program puts those students who choose it on a deliberate
path toward the accrual of educational advantage in key areas of learning
that can only over time enhance individual and societal educational
progress. The following quote from John Gardner's wonderful little book
Excellence (1961) captures this sentiment well: The tone and fiber of
our society depends upon a pervasive and almost universal striving for
good performance. And the society is bettered not only by those who
achieve it but by those who are trying.
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